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''Chinaman'' (female variant: Chinawomen) is a contentious English language term that denotes a Chinese man or person, or as a Chinese national, or, in some cases, an indiscriminate term for a person native to geographical East Asia or of perceived East Asian race. Although the term has no negative connotations in older dictionaries,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Chinaman )〕〔Fowler's Dictionary of English Usage, 1956〕 and the usage of such parallel compound terms as Englishman, Frenchman and Irishman〔Englishman has two plurals: (the) English, when speaking of the nation, and Englishmen when speaking of individuals. The same remark applies to: Dutchman, Frenchman, Irishman, Scotsman, Welshman, and Cornishman. Chinese is now rarely used as a singular, the compound Chinaman taking its place. A manual of English pronunciation and grammar for the use of Dutch students By J. H. A. Günther, p144〕 remain unobjectionable,〔Oxford American Dictionary〕 the term ''Chinaman'' is noted as offensive by modern dictionaries. Its derogatory connotations evolved from its use in pejorative contexts regarding the Chinese and other Asians. While usage of the term ''Chinaman'' is nowadays strongly discouraged by Asian American organizations, the term has been used by English speakers of Chinese descent and others, without offensive intent,〔〔 and has also been used as a self-referential archetype by authors and artists of Asian descent.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Frank Chin )〕 ==Historic usage== The term ''Chinaman'' has been historically used in a variety of ways, including legal documents, literary works, geographic names, and in speech. Census records in 19th century North America recorded Chinese men by names such as "John Chinaman", "Jake Chinaman", or simply as "Chinaman".〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=1891 Census of Canada )〕 Chinese American historian Emma Woo Louie commented that such names in census schedules were used when census takers could not obtain any information and that they "should not be considered to be racist in intent". One census taker in Eldorado County wrote, "I found about 80 Chinese men in Spanish Canion who refused to give me their names or other information." Louie equated "John Chinaman" to "John Doe" in its usage to refer to a person whose name is not known, and added that other ethnic groups were also identified by generic terms as well, such as ''Spaniard'' and ''Kanaka'', which refers to a Hawaiian. In a notable 1852 letter to Governor of California John Bigler which challenges his proposed immigration policy toward the Chinese, restaurant owner Norman Asing, at the time a leader in San Francisco's Chinese community, referred to himself as a "Chinaman". Addressing the governor, he wrote, "Sir: I am a Chinaman, a republican, and a lover of free institutions."〔(【引用サイトリンク】title="We Are Not the Degraded Race You Would Make Us": Norman Asing Challenges Chinese Immigration Restrictions )〕 ''Chinaman'' was also often used in complimentary contexts, such as "after a very famous Chinaman in old Cassiar Rush days, (who was) known & loved by whites and natives."〔(British Columbia Geographical Names Information System, "Ah Clem Creek" )〕 As the Chinese in the American West began to encounter discrimination and hostile criticism of their culture and mannerisms, the term would begin to take on negative connotations. The slogan of the Workingman's Party was "The Chinese Must Go!", coined in the 1870s before ''chinaman'' became a common derogatory term. The term ''Chinaman's chance'' evolved as the Chinese began to take on dangerous jobs building the railroads or ventured to exploit mine claims abandoned by others, and later found themselves victims of injustice as accused murderers (of Chinese) would be acquitted if the only testimony against them was from other Chinese. Legal documents such as the Geary Act of 1892, which barred the entry of Chinese people to the United States, referred to Chinese people both as "Chinese persons" or "Chinamen".〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Geary Act of 1892 )〕 The term has also been used to refer to Japanese men, despite the fact that they are not Chinese. The Japanese admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, during his training in England in the 1870s, was called "Johnny Chinaman" by his British comrades. Civil rights pioneer Takuji Yamashita took a case to the United States Supreme Court in 1922 on the issue of the possibility of allowing Japanese immigrants to own land in the state of Washington. Washington's attorney general, in his argument, stated that Japanese people could not fit into American society because assimilation was not possible for "the Negro, the Indian and the Chinaman". Literary and musical works have used the term as well. In "Disgraceful Persecution of a Boy", an 1870 essay written by Mark Twain, a sympathetic and often flattering account about the circumstances of Chinese people in 19th-century United States society, the term is used throughout the body of the essay to refer to Chinese people.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Disgraceful Persecution of a Boy )〕 Over a hundred years later, the term would again be used during the Civil Rights era in the context of racial injustice in literary works. The term was used in the title of Chinese American writer Frank Chin's first play, ''The Chickencoop Chinaman'', written in 1972,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Frank Chin )〕 and also in the translated English title of Bo Yang's work of political and cultural criticism ''The Ugly Chinaman and the Crisis of Chinese Culture''. In musical works, the term appears in Mort Shuman's 1967 translation of the Jacques Brel song "Jacky": "Locked up inside my opium den / Surrounded by some Chinamen."〔(【引用サイトリンク】publisher=therhymesofgoodbye.com )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=LYRICS FOR "Jacky (Single Mix)" ) 〕 (The phrase used in Brel's original French lyric was ''vieux Chinois'', meaning "old Chinese.") The term was also used in the hit 1974 song ''Kung Fu Fighting'', by Carl Douglas; the song's first verse begins "They were funky Chinamen from funky Chinatown."〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Kung Fu Fighting )〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Chinaman (term)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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